Emile Durkheim

Architect of Sociology and Social Influence on the Individual

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) was a foundational figure in sociology, distinguishing the discipline from psychology and philosophy by focusing on “social facts” as its proper object of study. While he didn’t propose individual psychological or adult developmental stages, his work profoundly illuminates how societal structures, norms, and collective consciousness shape individual experience and, by extension, development throughout life.

Key Contributions Relevant (Indirectly) to Individual Development:

Social Facts:
Durkheim argued that society consists of “social facts”—external, coercive, and general ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist independently of individual consciousness and influence individuals. Examples include laws, customs, moral rules, religious beliefs, and educational practices.
From a developmental perspective, social facts represent the powerful external forces that socialize individuals from birth. They dictate what is considered “normal,” “moral,” and “possible” at different ages. An individual’s development is deeply embedded within and shaped by these social facts. For adults, societal roles, expectations, and the nature of social solidarity heavily influence their experiences of work, family, aging, and personal fulfillment.
Social Solidarity (Mechanical vs. Organic):
Durkheim explored how societies maintain cohesion. He distinguished between two main types:
Mechanical Solidarity: Found in traditional, simpler societies with a low division of labor. Cohesion is based on the likeness of individuals and a strong collective consciousness (shared beliefs, values, and norms).
Organic Solidarity: Characterizes modern, complex societies with a high division of labor. Cohesion is based on the interdependence of individuals who perform diverse, specialized tasks. The collective consciousness is weaker, allowing more room for individual differences, but individuals rely on each other.
The shift from mechanical to organic solidarity has profound implications for individual development, particularly in adulthood. In modern societies, individuals experience greater individualism but also potential isolation. Adult identities are less prescribed by tradition and more shaped by specialized roles and the need to find one’s place within complex, interdependent networks. This societal shift impacts relationships, work roles, and the challenges of finding meaning.
Anomie:
This is a state of normlessness or deregulation that occurs when social norms and moral guidance weaken, often during periods of rapid social change (e.g., industrialization, economic crises). In an anomic state, individuals may feel disconnected, disoriented, and without clear moral anchors.
Durkheim’s famous study of suicide illustrated how social forces, like anomie, impact even individual acts. For adult development, anomie describes periods where individuals or groups lose their sense of direction or connection to shared values, leading to psychological distress, alienation, and a feeling of meaninglessness. This can manifest as personal crises, especially in adulthood, when societal expectations become unclear or traditional roles cease to provide guidance.
Collective Consciousness and Collective Representations:
These are the shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes that unify society. Collective representations (symbols, myths, rituals) bind individuals together and shape their understanding of reality.
These collective forces are crucial in socialization across the lifespan. They influence how individuals perceive themselves, their roles, and their aspirations. For adults, the collective consciousness dictates what is valued (e.g., success, family, community involvement), significantly impacting their life choices and developmental paths. The rituals and shared experiences of adult life reinforce collective representations and integrate individuals into their social groups.

Durkheim’s place in the relation to the field of adult development:

While not a developmental psychologist, Durkheim’s work provides the essential macrosociological backdrop against which individual development occurs. He reminds us that:

Individuals are products of their social environment: Our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are profoundly shaped by the social groups and structures we belong to, and these structures change across historical periods and societies.
Societal changes impact individual lives: Phenomena like the division of labor, urbanization, and periods of anomie create new challenges and opportunities for individual adaptation and development in adulthood.
The search for meaning is often social: Durkheim’s focus on collective consciousness and solidarity implies that a sense of belonging and shared purpose is fundamental to human well-being at all ages, including adulthood.

Thus, Durkheim’s theories are indispensable for anyone seeking a complete understanding of how the social world shapes the developmental trajectory of individuals throughout their lives.